Emergence of Critical and Cultural Theories Essay

Culture : the learned behavior of members of a given social group. Cultural studies: Focus use of media to create forms of culture that structure everyday life. Political economy theories: Focus on social elites’ use of economic power to exploit media institutions. 2 There are microscopic interpretive theories that focus on how individuals and social groups use media to create and foster forms of culture that structure everyday life. These theories are referred to as cultural studies theories. There are macroscopic structural theories that focus on how social elites use their economic power to gain ontrol over and 3 Cultural Theory: Theories openly espousing certain values and using these values to evaluate and criticize the status quo providing alternate ways of interpreting the social role of mass media. Those who develop critical theories seek to initiate social change that will implement their values. Political economy theories are inherently critical but some cultural studies 4 Critical theories often provides complex explanations for this tendency of media to consistently do so. E. g: some critical theorists identify constraints on media practitioners that limit their ability to challenge established authority. They charge that few incentives exist to encourage media professionals to overcome these constraints and that media 5 Critical theory often analyzes specific social institutions, probing the extent to which valued objects are sought and achieved. Mass Media and the mass culture have been linked to a variety of social problems, they are criticized for aggravating or preventing problems from being identified or addressed. A common theme in critical theories of media is that content production is so constrained 6 Consider for example, the last time you read news about members of a social ovement that strongly challenged the status quo? Why were the college students who protested against the Communist Chinese government in Tiananmen Square â€Å"heroes of democracy’ and those in American anti-war â€Å"hippies† and â€Å"radicals? † Stories about movements imply problems with 7 – controntation. Movement leaders demand coverage ot their complaints and they stage demonstrations designed to draw public attention to their concerns. Elites seek to minimize coverage or to exercise â€Å"spin control† so that the coverage favors their position. How do Journalists handle this? How should they handle it? Existing research indicates that this coverage almost always degenerates movements and supports elites. 8 Critical theory: Strengths: 1. Is politically based, actionoriented. 2. Uses theory and research to plan change in the real world. 3. Asks big, important questions about media control and ownership. 9 Weaknesses: 3. When subjected to scientific verification, often employs innovative but controversial research methods. 0 Rise of Cultural Theories in Europe: Despite its long life in American Social Science, the Limited Effects Paradigm never enjoyed great popularity in europe. European social research has instead been characterized by what U. S. Observers regard as grand social theories. Grand Social Theory: Highly ambitious, 1 1 In Europe, the development of grand social theory remained a central concern i n the social sciences and humanities. Mass society theory gave way to a succession of alternate ideas. Some were limited to specific nations and others spread across many countries. Some of the most widely accepted have been based on the writings of Karl Marx. Marxist theory influenced even the theories that were created in reaction against it. Marxist ideas formed a foundation or touch stone for most postworld War II european social theory and research. 12 Cold War politics colored much of the U. S. Response to it. Ironically, in the 1970s and 1980s, at the very time that Marxist failed as a practical guide for politics and economics in Eastern Europe, grand social theories based on Marxist thought were gaining increasing acceptance in Western Europe. 3 MARXIST THEORY: Marxist Theory: Theory arguing that the hierarchical class system is at the root of all social problems and must be ended by a revolution of the proletariat. Karl Marx developed this theory in the latter part of the nineteenth century during one of the most volatile periods of social change in Europe. In some respects, his theory is yet another version ot mass society theory- – but witn se veral very important alterations and additions. 14 He identified industrialization and urbanization as problems but argued that these changes were not inherently bad. Instead, he blamed ruthless robber baron capitalists for exacerbating social problems because they maximized personal profits by exploiting workers. Marx argued that the hierarchical class system was the root of ll social problems and must be ended by a revolution of the workers or proletariat. He believed that elites dominated society primarily through their direct control over the means of production (i. e. , labor, factories, land) which he referred to as the base of society. 15 But elites also maintained themselves in power through their control over culture, or the superstructure of society. He saw culture as something that elites freely manipulated to mislead average people and encourage them to act against their own interest. He used the term ideology to refer to these forms of culture. To him, ideology operated much like a drug. Those who were under its influence fail to see how they are being exploited. In worst cases, they are so deceived, that they actually 16 – undermine their own interests and do things that increase the power of elites while making their own lives even worse. Marx concluded that the only hope for social change was a revolution in which the masses seized control of the base the means of production. Control over the superstructure -over ideology would naturally follow. He saw little possibility that reforms in the super structure could ead to social evolution, or if it could, that -that transformation would be very slow in coming. Elites would never willingly surrender POWER. Power must be taken from them. Little purpose would be served by making minor changes in ideology 17 – without first dominating the means of production. Neomarxist Theory: Contemporary incarnation of Marxist theory focusing attention on the super structure. The importance that Neomarxists attach to the super structure has created a fundamental division within Marxism. Many neomaxists assume that useful change can begin with peaceful, ideological reform rather than violent revolution in which he working class seizes control of the means of production. 18 Some neomarxists have developed critiques that call for radically transforming the superstructure while others call for modest reforms. Tensions have arisen among scholars who base their work on Marx’s ideas over the value of the work being done by 19 the various neomarxist schools. Textual Analysis and Literary Criticism: Modern european cultural studies theories have a second, very different source a tradition of humanist criticism of religious and literary texts that is referred to hermeneutics. Hermeneutics: the interpretation f texts to identify their actual or real meaning. 20 -humanists who worked to identify and preserve what came to be known as the â€Å"literary canon† a body of the great literature. The literary canon was part of what was referred to as high culture, a set of cultural artifacts including music, art, literature, and poetry that humanists Judged to have the highest value. 1 – the level of culture to enable even more people to become humane and civilized. Over the years, many different methods for analyzing written texts have emerged from hermeneutics. They share a common purpose: to criticize old and new cultural ractices so that those most deserving of attention can be identified and explained and the less deserving can b e dismissed. This task can be compared with that of movie critics who tell us which films are good or bad and assist us in appreciating or avoiding them. The primary difference is that movie critics are typically not committed to promoting higher 22 – cultural values; they only want to explain which movies we are likely to find entertaining. THE FRANKFURT SCHOOL One early prominent school of neo-marxist theory developed during the 1930s at the University of Frankfurt and became known as the Frankfurt School. 3 Two of the most prominent individuals associated with the school were Max Horkheimer, its long time head, and Theodor Adorno, a prolific and cogent theorist. Horheimer and Adorno were openly skeptical that high culture could or should be communicated through mass media. Adorno argued that radio broadcasts or records couldn’t begin to adequately reproduce the sound of a live symphony orchestra. He ridiculed the reproduction of great art in 24 – magazines or the reprinting of great novels in condensed, serialized form. He claimed that mass media reproductions of high culture were inferior and diverted eople from seeking out (and paying for) the â€Å"real thing† if bad substitutes for high culture were readily available, he believed too many people would settle for them and fail to support better forms of culture. The Frankfurt School has been criticized along with other forms of traditional humanism for being too elitist and paternalistic. By rejecting the possibility of using media to disseminate 25 – high culture, most ot the population was ettectively denied access to it Many ot the school’s criticisms of media paralleled those of mass society theory and had the same limitations. The Frankfurt School eventually had a direct impact on American social research because the rise of the Nazis forced its Jewish members into exile. 26 During the period of exile, however, Frankfurt School Theorists remained prodductive. They devoted considerable effort, for example, to the critical analysis of Nazi culture and the way it undermined and perverted high culture. In their view, Nazism grounded on a phony, artificially constructed folk culture that had been cynically created and manipulated by Hitler and his propagandists. 27 Nazism helped them envision the Germany they longed to see – a unified, proud ation with a long history of achievement and a glorious future. As they rose to power, the Nazis replaced high culture with their pseudofolk culture and discredited important forms of high culture, especially those created by Jews. 8 DEVELOPMENT OF NEOMARXIST THEORY IN BRITAIN: Dunng the 1960s and 1970s , two important schools of neomarxist theory emerged in Great Britain. British Cultural studies and political economy theory. British cultural studies combines neomarxist theory with ideas and research methods derived from diverse sources including literary criticism, linguistics, anthropology, and h istory. This theory has attempted to trace historic elite domination over culture, to criticize the 29 – social consequence of this domination and to demonstrate how it continues to be exercised over specific minority groups or subcultures. British cultural studies criticizes and contrasts elite notions of culture, including high culture, with popular, every day forms practiced by minorities. The superiority of all forms of elite culture including high culture is challenged and compared with useful, valuable forms of popular culture. Hermeneutic attention is shifted from the study of elite cultural rtifacts to the study of minority grouped â€Å"Lived culture. † 30 Graham Murdock(1989) traced the rise of British cultural studies during the 1950s and 1960s. Most important theorists came from the lower social classes that were the focus of the movies. The British cultural studies critique of high culture and ideology was an explicit rejection of what its proponents saw as alien forms of culture imposed on minorities. They defended indigenous forms of popular culture as legitimate expressions of minority groups/ A dominant early theorist was Raymond Williams, a literary scholar who achieved 31 Notoriety with his reappraisals of cultural development in England. William’s ideas were viewd with suspicion and skepticism by many of his colleagues at Cambridge University. Toward the end of 1960s and into the 1970s, Williams turned his attention to mass media. He was more broadly concerned with issues of cultural change and development as well as elite domination ot culture. 3 – repackaged as popular, mass media content. If there were to be genuine progress, he felt, it would have to come through significant reform of social institutions. The first important school of cultural studies theorists was formed at the University of Birmingham, during the 1960s and was led by Stuart Hall. Hall (1982) was especially influential in directing several analyses of mass media that directly challenge limited effects notions and in introducing innovative alternatives. Building on ideas developed by Jurgen Habermas(1971 , 1989) and Williams, Hall argued that mass media liberal -democracies can be best understood as a pluralistic public forum in which various forces struggle to shape popular notions about social reality. Pluralistic Public Forum: In critical theory, the idea that media provide a place where the power of dominant lite can be challenged. British Cultural Studies: Strengths: 1 . Asserts value of popular culture 2. Empowers â€Å"Common Man† 34 3. Empowers minorities and values their culture. 4. Stresses cultural pluralism and egalitarianism. Weaknesses: 1. Is too political; call to action is to subjective 2. Typically lacks scientific verification; is based on subjective observation. 3. When subjected to scientific verification, often employs innovative but controversial research methods. 35 Unlike traditional Marxists, Hall did not argue that elites can maintain complete control over this forum. In his view, elites don’t need that power to advance their interests. The culture expressed in this forum is not a mere superficial reflection of the superstructure but is instead a dynamic creation of opposing groups.

Ernie Davis Essay

A three-time All-American halfback and 1961 Heisman Trophy winner, Ernie Davis would go on to win MVP title in both the Cotton Bowl and the Liberty Bowl, and was inducted into the College Football Hall Of Fame in 1979. He was the first African American man to win the Heisman Trophy, and to be picked 1st overall in the NFL draft. His career was cut short when he was diagnosed with cancer in 1962. Athlete. American Football player. Ernie Davis was born on December 14, 1939 in New Salem, Pennsylvania, USA. He is the first African American man to win the Heisman Trophy and the first black athlete to be chosen 1st overall in the NFL Draft. A three-time All-American halfback and 1961 Heisman Trophy winner, Davis set yardage and scoring records at Syracuse University. He would go on to win MVP title in both the 1960 Cotton Bowl and the 1961 Liberty Bowl, and would be inducted into the College Football Hall Of Fame in 1979. His honors and accomplishments on the gridiron were matched only by his adversity off the field; As a black athlete playing many games in the south, he was the victim of racism on several occasions. The most publicized incident occurred when he was selected as the Cotton Bowl MVP in 1960. Davis was told by organizers that he would be allowed to accept his award at the post game banquet, and would immediately have to leave the segregated facility. Ernie refused to receive the award, and his entire team agreed to boycott the banquet. A man of firsts, Ernie Davis was the first African American man to win the Heisman Trophy, the first to join the prestigious Sigma Alpha Mu fraternity (a nationally recognized Jewish fraternity) and, in 1962, became the first African American player to be picked 1st overall in the NFL draft. Tragic Death Although the details are somewhat disputed, Davis’ contract was considered to be the most lucrative ever offered to an NFL rookie. His teammates and supporters looked forward to seeing Ernie sharing the backfield with the great Jim Brown, breaking countless records and leading the Cleveland Browns to a decade of victorious seasons. Those seasons would never come, however, as Ernie was diagnosed with acute monocytic leukemia during preparations for the 1962 College All Star Game. Although treatment had begun immediately, the disease would prove incurable and Ernie died on May 18, 1963 – Having never played a professional football game. Both the House and the Senate eulogized him, and his wake was in The Neighborhood House in Elmira, New York, where more than 10,000 mourners paid their respects. Accolades from JFK His character and his athletic accomplishments caught the eye of John F. Kennedy, who had followed Ernie’s college career and made several attempts to meet the star. In 1963, when he heard Ernie would be honored by his high school with a school holiday, the president sent a telegram reading: â€Å"Seldom has an athlete been more deserving of such a tribute. Your high standards of performance on the field and off the field, reflect the finest qualities of competition, sportsmanship and citizenship. The nation has bestowed upon you its highest awards for your athletic achievements. It’s a privilege for me to address you tonight as an outstanding American, and as a worthy example of our youth. I salute you.† Ernie Davis was the subject of the 2008 Universal Pictures film â€Å"The Express,† based on the non-fiction book Ernie Davis: The Elmira Express, by Robert C. Gallagher.

A Progress Bar Example Program

Palestinians Demand for Independence - 694 Words

Imagine someone took your own land away from you. Wouldn’t you fight back and seek justice? Wouldn’t you fight every bit of obstacles to gain independence? That is what the Palestinians are trying to do. The Israeli-Palestinian Conflict is a controversy between Israelis and the Palestinians over control of Jerusalem. The Israelis are mostly Jewish and the Palestinians are mostly Muslims. Jerusalem is located between the Mediterranean and the Dead Sea and is one of the oldest cities in the world. At this moment, Israel controls the land. The Palestinians live in two areas called the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The Palestinians only want to declare independence from the Israelis and create their own country in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Currently, they want support from the United Nations and want President Barack Obama to accept their request for freedom. President Barack Obama should endorse the Palestinians request for independence for many reasons. First of all, others might say Israel was involved in the Six-Day War to protect themselves from the five Arab countries from attacking them. For example, in 1967, Israel fought against the five Arab countries, which were Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon, and Saudi Arabia because they were all planning to destroy Israel. The Israelis say that, â€Å"Egypt’s Nasser was planning a Pan-Arab invasion to eradicate Israel† (Israeli 10). The fact that Egypt was planning to attack Israel illustrates that it was a defensive war becauseShow MoreRelatedMiddle East and the Independence of Country States1285 Words   |  5 Pagesto the Middle East, the claim that â€Å"Independence removed one set of problems only to have them replaced with another.† In order to find out if that statement is true and if so, to what extent, I will examine several Middle Eastern states during the early period of their independence. 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In 2015, Israel ranked 32 out of 168 countries in corruption perceptions. Same as what happened in recent years, the diversity and independence of media will be threatened by financial difficulties and military censorship. Currently, Prime Minister Netanyahu himself serves as communication minister, which grants him control over media outlets. Protests aimed at regime change with the helpRead MoreTerrorism Paper1425 Words   |  6 Pagesissue has existed for centuries, the word terrorism has only begun being used in the second part of the 19th century (What Is Terrorism? Pg. 1). The earliest account of a terrorist act in the second part of the 19th century was in 1968 when a Palestinian terrorist hijacked an Israeli airliner (What Is Terrorism? Pg. 4). There are two other factors which aid terrorism: one being the media which informs the world of the attacks which strike fear into the hearts and minds of average civilians; and

Wal Mart s Fight For Child Labor - 1342 Words

In today’s world, one would believe that the majority of educated people stand against businesses exploiting child labor to produce its goods. However, one way or another, we have all supported these businesses every time we went shopping. Whether it was a soccer ball for a child or a jacket for an adult, it was possibly manufactured using child labor. This issue is an important factor when it comes to the global market where some U.S. companies such as Nike, Reebok, or Wal-Mart have participated in. Western civilization has attempted to fight child labor for many years now, with little or no advance in decreasing the rates of child labor in emerging economies. Third-world countries offer child labor, low-cost labor, in order to be more competitive in a given market. As a result, companies in United States and Europe choose low-cost and high profitability production without minding employing kids to do the work. It’s not only the big western companies who take advantage of this unethical behavior but also farmers and human traffickers exploit these children in need as well. Even though child labor seems beneficial to the marketplace including consumers and producers, it is an matter that needs to be tackled as soon as possible since millions of kids are suffering on daily basis due to this abuse of authority and power. Child labor is a problem all around the globe, but it mostly affects underage workers in developing countries. Child labor is considered full-timeShow MoreRelatedWal-Mart: Affects the Health of the United States3178 Words   |  13 PagesBentonville, Arkansas, Wal-Mart has not stopped expanding. The First Wal-Mart store was opened in 1962 by a Mr. Sam Walton. He opened the store with one intention: sell products people need at the lowest price available. Wal-Mart has since blown up into a globally known and used corporation. 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Unions

Functions of Management Essay Example For Students

Functions of Management Essay The organizing function typically follows the planning stag Specific organizing duties involve the assignment of tasks, the grouping of tasks into departments, the assignment of authority, and allocation of resources across the organization. K Authority is a managers formal and legitimate right to make decisions, issue orders, and allocate resources to achieve organizations objectives. Types of authority include line, functional, and staff. * Organizational concepts such as tall vs.. Flat Structures, the presence Of centralization, decentralization, ND formalization can affect management control and decision-making. In organizations, planning is also a management process, concerned With deeding goals for companys future direction and determining on the missions and resources to achieve those target. To meet the goals, managers may develop plans, such as a business plan or a marketing plan. Planning always has a purpose. The purpose may be achievement of certain goals or targets. The planning helps to achieve these goals or target by using the available time and resources. The concept of planning is to identity what the organization ants to do by using the three questions which answer, where are we today in terms of our business or strategy planning? In organizations, planning is also a management process, concerned with defining goals for companys future direction and determining on the missions and resources to achieve those target. To meet the goals, managers may develop plans, such as a business plan or a marketing plan. Planning always has a purpose. The purpose may be achievement of certain goals or targets. The planning helps to achieve these goals or target by using the available time and resources. The concept of planning is to identify what the organization wants to do by using the three questions which answer, where are we today in terms of our business or strategy planning? In organizations, planning is also a management process, concerned with defining goals for companys future direction and determining on the missions and resources to achieve those target. TO meet the goals, managers may develop plans, such as business plan or a marketing plan. Planning always has a purpose. The purpose may be achievement Of certain goals or targets. The planning helps to achieve these goals or target by using the available time and resources. The concept of planning is to identify what the organization wants to do by using the three questions which answer, where are we today in terms of our business or strategy planning? The Four Functions of Management is Planning, Organizing, Leading, and Controlling. To successfully lead, the four functions of management must be understood and implemented in day to day responsibilities to ensure the end result is achieved Planning is the function where goals are chosen, it is the process of thinking about and organizing the activities required to achieve a desired goal; Organizing brings resources together: Leading coordinates the resources; and Controlling monitors and measures the coordination. In organizations, planning is an important management process with defining goals for companys future direction and determining the mission and resources to achieve those targets.

Zenescope Submission Agreement free essay sample

Mail submissions with a signed copy of this agreement to: Zenescope Entertainment 433 Caredean Drive Suite C Horsham, PA 19044 Submissions Agreement I am submitting to you the following materials (here after referred to as â€Å"the Material†): (list title and description here) In accordance with the following agreement: 1. 2. 3. 4. I represent and warrant to you, Zenescope Entertainment, your successors and assigns that the Material is my original creation and that no other persons other than those who have signed and submitted a copy of this agreement have collaborated with me in creating and developing the Material. Zenescope Entertainment’s consideration of the Material and any negotiations between us regarding the Material shall not be deemed an admission of the novelty or originality of the Material. Zenescope Entertainment may retain a copy of the Material and I release Zenescope Entertainment and it’s officers from any liability for loss or damage thereto. I hereby grant Zenescope Entertainment the right to use the Material provided that Zenescope Entertainment shall first conclude an agreement with me for such use or Zenescope Entertainment shall determine that an independent legal right exists to use the Material or any portion thereof which is not derived from me either because the Material is not new, novel, or original or has not been reduced to concrete form or because other persons (which may include employees of Zenescope Entertainment and other persons presenting materials to Zenescope Entertainment) have submitted similar or identical suggestions, features and material which you have the right to use. We will write a custom essay sample on Zenescope Submission Agreement or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page This Agreement shall be construed solely under Pennsylvania substantive law (except where the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution of the United States requires federal law to apply). The parties involved have chosen the substantive law to apply, no other choice of law (including Pennsylvania’s) applies. Any dispute shall be settled in the state of Pennsylvania; if dispute resolution is required, it shall be conducted in Pennsylvania. A party may enforce any settlement or arbitration in any other form only in accord with applicable law. Any dispute between us which cannot be settled by the parties in a easonable time shall be submitted to arbitration in Horsham, Pennsylvania, in accordance with the rules and regulations of the American Arbitration Association. I agree that any claim directly against Zenescope Entertainment or it’s employees, officers, directors or shareholders based on the Material must be brought within one year after the date of Zenescope Entertainment’s first publication or other relevant use of the Material. In the event of any dispute that requires dispute resolution, the prevailing party shall be entitled to receive reimbursement from the non-prevailing party for all mediation, arbitration, and other legal costs, expenses and fees, in addition to any other recovery or award. This agreement constitutes our entire understanding and my signature and the signature of any person who has collaborated with me in the creation of the Material shall constitute agreement to the terms and conditions set forth herein. This agreement may be changed only by a written instrument signed by a representative of Zenescope Entertainment and myself. This agreement also applies to any other material which I may submit to Zenescope Entertainment unless it is agreed by all parties involved, in writing, to the contrary. The invalidity of any provision of this agreement shall not affect the remainder, which shall continue in full force and effect.